Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton, ingkang miyos wonten ing tanggal 25 Desember 1642 lan seda ing 20 Maret 1726/27, dadosipun polymath lan filsuf alam ingkang asal saking Inggris.[7] Newton tansah aktif wonten ing babagan kawruh alam lan mbiyantu wonten ing jaman Revolusi Ilmiah lan Zaman Pencerahan. Wonten ing karyanipun "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" ingkang dipunbabar wonten ing taun 1687, Newton nggabungaken hasil panaliten ingkang sampun wonten lan nyiptakaken dasar-dasar mekanika klasik..[8][9] Kanthi tembang kangge panaliten optika lan pengembangan kalkulus infinitesimal bebarengan kaliyan Leibniz, sanadyan Newton ngembangaken kalkulus langkung rumiyin tinimbang Leibniz, dhawuh kawruhipun Newton dados tanda penting wonten ing donya ilmu pengetahuan.[10][11][12][13]
Sir Isaac Newton | |
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Lair | [OS: 25 Dhésèmber 1642][1] Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth Lincolnshire, Inggris | 4 Januari 1643
Pati | 31 Maret 1727 [OS: 20 Maret 1726][1] Kensington, Middlesex, Inggris | (umur 84)
Padunungan | Inggris |
Bangsa | Inggris |
Alma mater | Trinity College, Cambridge |
Kondhang ing | Newtonian mechanics Universal gravitation Infinitesimal calculus Optics Binomial series Newton's method Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica |
Karièr ngèlmiah | |
Babagan | fisika, matematika, astronomi, filsafat alam, alkemi, Teologi Kristen |
Institutions | Universitas Cambridge Royal Society Royal Mint |
Juru pamrayoga | Isaac Barrow[2] Benjamin Pulleyn[3][4] |
Mahasiswa wigati | Roger Cotes William Whiston |
Mrabawani | Henry More[5] Polish Brethren[6] |
Kaprabawan | Nicolas Fatio de Duillier John Keill |
Tandha tangan | |
Cathetan | |
Hannah Ayscough iku ibuné. Catherine Barton iku ponakané. |
Newton dipunkawruh dados salah satunggaling ilmuwan ingkang gadhah pengaruh ageng wonten ing sejarah. Wonten ing bukunipun "Principia," Newton ngrumusaken hukum gerakan lan hukum gravitasi universal, ingkang tetep dados pandangan ilmiah dominan ngantos dipun-gantos kaliyan teori relativitas. Newton ugi ngangge teori gravitasi kangge nerangaken macem-macem fenomena astronomi lan terestrial, nyantosaken model heliosentris saking Tata Surya.[14] Newton nyatakaken bilih gerakan obyek ing bumi lan ing luar angkasa nurut karo prinsip-prinsip ingkang padha. Teori Newton ingkang nyatakaken bilih Bumi bentukipun oblate spheroid dipunpastekaken dening panaliti sanesipun mengko, nglengkapi keefektifan mekanika Newtonian.
Newton ugi kondhang amargi pembangunan teleskop pantul praktis kapisan lan ngembangaken teori warna adhedhasar percobaan prisma. Karyanipun wonten ing babagan cahya dipunbabar wonten ing buku "Opticks" ingkang dipunbabar wonten ing taun 1704. Newton ngrumusaken hukum pendinginan, ngitung kecepatan swanten, lan ngintrokduksi konsep fluida Newtonian. Wonten ing babagan matematika, Newton nyumbangaken kawruh ing babagan seri kuasa, pengumuman teorema binomial, metode kangge ngaproksimasi akar fungsi, lan klasifikasi kurva bidang kubik. Newton, wonten ing wanci lan kawruhipun, dados figur kangge dieling-eling amargi kontribusinipun ingkang ageng tumrap kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan lan teknologi.
Kalkulus
besutNewton punika salah satunggaling tokoh ingkang mbiyantu ngrembakaken saben cabang matematika ingkang sampun kawicaksana wonten ing jamanipun. Newton ngembangaken kawruh matematika kanthi cara ingkang ageng, kalebet wonten ing babagan kalkulus. Wonten ing manuskrip saking wulan Oktober 1666 ingkang dipunsebat 'fluxions,' kawruh kalkulusipun Newton saiki sampun dipunbabar wonten ing kumpulan tulisan matematikinipun.[15] Kertas karya Newton ingkang irah-irahanipun "De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas," ingkang dipunkintun dening Isaac Barrow dhateng John Collins wonten ing wulan Juni 1669, dipunpuji dening Barrow amargi nuduhaken geni kesarjanaan ingkang luar biasa.
Newton ugi kacatet minangka salah satunggaling tokoh ingkang kapapag kaliyan Leibniz wonten ing perselisihan babagan sinten ingkang rumiyin ngembangaken kalkulus. Miturut akeh sejarawan, Newton lan Leibniz kanthi mandiri ngembangaken kalkulus, sanadyan ngginakaken notasi matematika ingkang beda. Newton dhewe ngembangaken kalkulus langkung rumiyin tinimbang Leibniz.[16][17][18] Notasi lan metode Leibniz wonten ing kalkulus akhiripun dipunanggep wonten ing Eropa lan wonten ing Britania Raya sasampunipun taun 1820.
Newton dipunkawruh amargi nyipta teorema binomial umum ingkang bisa dipunanggep kangge kabeh eksponen. Panjenenganipun ugi nemokaken macem-macem konsep lan teknik matematika, kalebet identitas Newton, metode Newton, klasifikasi kurva bidang kubik, sumbangan dhateng beda hingga, panggunaan indeks pecahan, lan aplikasi geometri koordinat dhateng persamaan Diophantine. Newton ngaproksimasi jumlah parsial saking seri harmonik ngangge logaritma lan ngginakaken seri daya kanthi percaya diri lan malik. Karya Newton wonten ing seri tak terhingga dipunpengaruhi dening karya Simon Stevin wonten ing babagan desimal.[19]
Gravitasi
besutIsaac Newton wiwit ngembangaken teori gravitasinipun wiwit taun 1665.[20][21] Ing taun 1679, Newton wangsul malih ngrumat mekanika langit, fokus wonten ing gravitasi lan pengaruh ingkang dipunkasilaken dhateng orbit planet, kanthi gandheng ceneng kaliyan hukum-hukum Kepler. Ing antawis taun 1679 ngantos 1680, Newton gadhah pasinaon surat-suratan kalayan Hooke, ingkang njabat dadi pengurus surat-suratan Royal Society, ingkang lajeng nggugah Newton kangge maringi sumbangan dhateng Society punika. Ing mangsa adhem taun 1680 ngantos 1681, kawigaten Newton wonten ing astronomi lajeng saya dene ngrembaka amargi wonten komet, nyebabaken Newton gadhah surat-suratan kaliyan John Flamsteed.
Wonten ing Principia, Newton ngajokaken telu hukum gerak universal. Hukum-hukum punika njelasaken sesambetan antawis obyek, gaya, lan gerakan, saengga ndamel dasar mekanika klasik. Hukum-hukum punika nulungi kemajuan ageng wonten ing Revolusi Industri lan tetep boten dipunpraduli ngantos langkung saking 200 taun. Akeh kemajuan punika ingkang isih dados landhesan teknologi non-relativistik wonten ing jagad modhèrn. Newton ngagem tembung Latin "gravitas" (bobot) kangge nama ingkang dados dikenal minangka gravitasi lan ngrumusaken hukum gravitasi universal.[22]
Optika
besutPanjenenganipun ngawontenaken panaliten wonten ing taun 1666. Newton sampun mangertosi bilih spektrum ingkang kawangun saking prisma puniku oblong,[23] sanajan asupan cahya puniku bunder, amargi sudut refraksi ingkang béda kanggé warni ingkang béda ugi.[24] Newton nyimpulaken bilih warni punika sipat intrinsik saking cahya, saéngga ngatasi debat ingkang sampun wonten sadèrèngipun. Wonten ing taun 1670 dumugi 1672, Newton damel kuliah babagan optika.[25] Wonten ing wekdal punika, Newton nguningaken bilih spektrum ingkang dipunwujudaken déning prisma saged dipunbalèkaken dados cahya putih nganggé prisma lan lénsa sanesipun. Kajian modhèren nguningaken bilih karyanipun Newton babagan cahya putih wonten pengaruh saking alkimia korpuskular.[26] Newton ugi nguningaken bilih cahya warni tansah njagi warninipun nalika dipunpantul, dipunsebar, utawi dipuntransmisi, lan boten ngalami owah-owahan sipat nalika dipisahaken.
Newton nyatakaken bilih warni dados asil saking interaksi obyek kaliyan cahya warni, boten saking obyek ingkang ndamel warni. Konsep punika dipunwastani teori warni Newton. Newton nemokaken yèn prisma saged nyebabaken cahya putih dados spektrum warni lan nyimpulaken yèn lénsa teleskop réfraktif badhé ngalami aberasi kromatis. Kanggé ngatasi menika, Newton ndamel teleskop nganggé cermin tinimbang lénsa. Newton nggawé teleskop pantul ingkang kawentar minangka teleskop pantul fungsional kapisan, ngatasi masalah bahan cermin lan wujudipun. Newton nyiptakaken cerminipun piyambak saking campuran logam spékulum réfléktif, nganggé cincin Newton kanggé nilar kualitas optik. Newton ngrampungaken teleskop pantulipun ingkang kapisan wonten ing pungkasan taun 1668. Teleskop punika dawaipun kurang langkung wolu inci lan nyedhiyakaken gambar ingkang langkung cetha lan ageng.
Karya-karyané
besut- Method of Fluxions (1671)
- De Motu Corporum (1684)
- Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
- Opticks (1704)
- Reports as Master of the Mint Archived 2005-02-07 at the Wayback Machine. (1701-1725)
- Arithmetica Universalis (1707)
- An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture(1754)
Short Chronicle, The System of the World, Optical Lectures, Universal Arithmetic, The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, Amended lan De mundi systemate diterbitaké mawi cara anumreta ing taun 1728.
Sitiran
besut- ↑ a b During Newton's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the Julian ("Old Style") calendar in Protestant and Orthodox regions, including Britain; and the Gregorian ("New Style") calendar in Roman Catholic Europe. At Newton's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates: thus his birth is recorded as taking place on 25 December 1642 Old Style, but can be converted to a New Style (modern) date of 4 January 1643. By the time of his death, the difference between the calendars had increased to eleven days: moreover, he died in the period after the start of the New Style year on 1 January, but before that of the Old Style new year on 25 March. His death occurred on 20 March 1726 according to the Old Style calendar, but the year is usually adjusted to 1727. A full conversion to New Style gives the date 31 March 1727. See Thony, Christie (2015) Calendrical confusion or just when did Newton die?, The Renaissance Mathematicus, retrieved 20 March 2015 from https://thonyc.wordpress.com/2015/03/20/calendrical-confusion-or-just-when-did-newton-die/
- ↑ Mordechai Feingold, Barrow, Isaac (1630–1677), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; online edn, May 2007; accessed 24 February 2009; explained further in Mordechai Feingold " Newton, Leibniz, and Barrow Too: An Attempt at a Reinterpretation"; Isis, Vol. 84, No. 2 (June, 1993), pp. 310-338
- ↑ Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Newton, Isaac, n.4
- ↑ Gjersten, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
- ↑ Westfall, Richard S. (1983) [1980]. Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. kc. 530–531. ISBN 978-0-521-27435-7.
- ↑ Snobelen, Stephen D. (1999). "Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite" (PDF). British Journal for the History of Science. 32 (4): 381–419. doi:10.1017/S0007087499003751.
- ↑ Alex, Berezow (4 February 2022). "Who was the smartest person in the world?". Big Think. Dibukak ing 28 September 2023.
- ↑ Whiteside, D. T. (1991). "The Prehistory of the 'Principia' from 1664 to 1686". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 45 (1): 11–61. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1991.0002. ISSN 0035-9149. JSTOR 531520. S2CID 145338571.
- ↑ Gandt, F. D. (2014). Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia. Princeton University Press. kc. ix–xii. ISBN 978-1-4008-6412-6.
- ↑ Simmons, John (1997). The Scientific 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Scientists, Past and Present. Secaucus, New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8065-1749-0.
- ↑ Tyson, Peter (15 November 2005). "Newton's Legacy". NOVA. PBS. Dibukak ing 28 September 2023.
- ↑ "Newton beats Einstein in polls of scientists and the public". Royal Society. 23 November 2005. Dibukak ing 28 September 2023.
- ↑ "Isaac Newton". New Scientist. Dibukak ing 28 September 2023.
- ↑ More, Louis Trenchard (1934). Isaac Newton, a Biography (ing basa Inggris). Dover Publications. kc. 327.
- ↑ Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1967). "Part 7: The October 1666 Tract on Fluxions". The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 400. Archived 12 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine..
- ↑ Newman, James Roy (1956). The World of Mathematics: A Small Library of the Literature of Mathematics from Aʻh-mosé the Scribe to Albert Einstein (ing basa Inggris). Simon and Schuster. kc. 58.
- ↑ Sastry, S.Subramanya, The Newton-Leibniz controversy over the invention of the calculus (PDF), University of Wisconsin–Madison, kc. 3, doi:10.1214/ss/1028905930, dibukak ing 12 October 2023
- ↑ "How and Why did Newton Develop Such Complicated Mathematics?". Futurism. 17 July 2017. Dibukak ing 12 October 2023.
- ↑ Błaszczyk, P.; et al. (March 2013). "Ten misconceptions from the history of analysis and their debunking". Foundations of Science. 18 (1): 43–74. arXiv:1202.4153. doi:10.1007/s10699-012-9285-8. S2CID 119134151.
- ↑ Struik, Dirk J. (1948). A Concise History of Mathematics (ing basa Inggris). Dover Publications. kc. 151, 154.
- ↑ McDonald, Kerry (27 March 2020). "How Isaac Newton Turned Isolation From the Great Plague Into a "Year of Wonders"". fee.org (ing basa Inggris). Dibukak ing 14 October 2023.
- ↑ Schmitz, Kenneth S. (2018). Physical Chemistry: Multidisciplinary Applications in Society. Amsterdam: Elsevier. kc. 251. ISBN 978-0-12-800599-6. Diarsip saka asliné ing 10 March 2020. Dibukak ing 1 March 2020.
- ↑ Ball 1908, p. 324
- ↑ Darrigol, Olivier (2012). A History of Optics from Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. kc. 81. ISBN 978-0-19-964437-7.
- ↑ Newton, Isaac. "Hydrostatics, Optics, Sound and Heat". Cambridge University Digital Library. Diarsip saka asliné ing 8 January 2012. Dibukak ing 10 January 2012.
- ↑ William R. Newman, "Newton's Early Optical Theory and its Debt to Chymistry", in Danielle Jacquart and Michel Hochmann, eds., Lumière et vision dans les sciences et dans les arts (Geneva: Droz, 2010), pp. 283–307. A free access online version of this article can be found at the Chymistry of Isaac Newton project Archived 28 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine. (PDF)